Immigration Research
Explanation of source links: Throughout the research below, you will find links of three types. The first and most frequent type is to primary sources such as governmental agencies. The second is to nonprofit groups that generally use government data or their own research to support their philanthropic mission. We have tried to use the least biased of these, or when in doubt, we have identified their bias. The third is to articles in periodicals or newspapers that we find to be of interest. These are not meant to be construed as original sources, and in some cases may not be accessible, depending on a reader's frequency of prior visits to the linked periodical or newspaper.
What are the major programs available for people who desire to immigrate legally to the US?
In order to enter the country legally, an individual must apply for one of the following programs from outside the US.
Family-based immigration: Family-based immigration policies allow US citizens and LPRs (lawful permanent residents) to bring certain family members to the US. They are then admitted into the country either as immediate relatives or through the family preference system. Immediate relatives are defined as spouses, unmarried minor children (under 21 years of age), and parents of US citizens. The family preference system includes adult children/brothers/sisters, spouses, and unmarried children. Visas issued under both systems are limited based on an annual numerical formula.
Employment-based immigration: Through employment-based visas, migrants can enter temporarily or permanently. If an employer uses the temporary program, they can hire foreign nationals for specific jobs for limited periods. These migrants must work for a specific employer and have limited ability to change jobs. There are different classifications for temporary workers (including intracompany transfers, athletes, entertainers, performers, religious workers, etc.). If an employer uses the permanent program, immigrant employees must fit into one of five categories: persons of extraordinary ability, members of professions holding advanced degrees, skilled workers with at least two years of training or experience, professionals with college degrees, and “other” workers for unskilled labor. The limit for permanent employment-based immigrants is 140,000 per year (including immigrants and their eligible spouses and unmarried children).
Refugees and asylees: This program provides legal admission to people “who are fleeing persecution or are unable to return to their homeland due to life-threatening or extraordinary conditions.” To qualify as a “refugee,” you must have a “well-founded fear of persecution.” Those seeking refugee status must apply for admission from a transition country outside the US (not their home country). Admission relies on factors like the degree of risk they face, membership in a group the US is interested in, and whether or not they have family in the US. The category of “asylum” is available to people already in the US seeking protection. They must apply within one year of arriving in the US, and there is no limit to the amount of people who may be granted asylum.
The diversity visa program: The Immigrant Act of 1990 created a lottery to encourage immigration from countries with low rates of immigration to the US. 55,000 visas are allocated randomly to nationals from countries that have sent fewer than 50,000 migrants to the US in the previous 5 years. This is one of the only avenues for individuals from certain regions in the world to secure a green card. To be eligible, the applicant must have a high-school education (or equivalent), and a minimum of two years working experience in a profession (requiring at least two years of training/experience), within the last five years. A computer-generated random lottery selects who receives the visas.
Other forms of humanitarian relief: There are two other programs in the category of humanitarian relief. First is “temporary protected status,” which is granted to people who are in the US but can’t return home due to natural disaster, extraordinary temporary conditions, or ongoing armed conflict in their home countries. A second is called “deferred enforced departure,” which provides protection from deportation for those whose home countries are unstable, generally decided at the discretion of the executive branch.
How do people enter the country illegally?
The answer to this question requires an important definition of terms.
Undocumented or unauthorized immigrants:
There are two categories of immigrants who are in the country with unauthorized or undocumented status.
The largest category consists of those who entered the country legally but stayed beyond the expiration of their visas. These individuals are often referred to as “overstays.”
The second category includes those who have avoided detection upon entering the country illegally. This category are referred to as “getaways.”
Since these individuals are here illegally, we can only estimate their numbers. In 2022, the Office of Homeland Security estimated there to be 11 million such unauthorized immigrants. (See more on this below.)
Documented immigrants who enter illegally:
This category of immigrants has received significant attention in recent years. It includes individuals who present themselves at the border seeking asylum, per the program described above, without attempting to avoid detection. Since they have not applied for the program from outside the U.S., they are considered illegal at that point.
Per federal law and international treaty (see more below), these individuals are interviewed to determine the credibility of their claims. Based on these findings, they may be returned to their home country, held in detention awaiting return, held in detention awaiting a further hearing, or documented and released into the country. At that point, they are no longer considered illegal, unauthorized, or undocumented.
What are the basic facts of immigration in the US today?
According to the generally available US census data, in 2023 immigrants and their US-born children totaled approximately 90.8 million people, which is 27% of the US population. This number includes both authorized and unauthorized immigrants. This includes 18 million children with at least one immigrant parent and 5.8 million US citizen children with a non-citizen parent. The majority of children with at least one immigrant parent are US citizens, with 88% born in the US.
How has this number changed over time?
Although the number of immigrants in the US has fluctuated over time, the number of immigrants began increasing after the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act in 1965. The following graph is provided by the Pew Research Center based on US Census Bureau data.
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How many of these immigrants are unauthorized?
Also according to US government data compiled by the Pew Research Center, there were an estimated 11.0 million unauthorized immigrants in 2022. These estimates are based on the 2022 American Community Survey.
How has this number changed over time?
The increase from 10.0 million in 2020 to 11.0 million in 2022 reversed a long-term downward trend from 2007 to 2019. This is the first sustained increase in the unauthorized immigrant population since the period from 2005 to 2007.
IN THE LATEST YEAR WHERE DATA ARE AVAILABLE, HOW MANY LEGAL IMMIGRANTS ENTERED THE US?
According to the Department of Homeland Security, in 2023, 1.17 million legal immigrants were granted green cards via one of the several programs described above.
Which countries do most authorized immigrants originate from?
The largest countries of origin were Mexico, India, China, Venezuela, Cuba, Brazil, and Canada. As indicated above, most entered through family-sponsored visas, employment-based programs, and humanitarian programs for refugees and those seeking asylum.
Which countries do most unauthorized immigrants originate from?
According to the Migration Policy Institute, as of 2024, 53% of the unauthorized population originated in Mexico, 16% from Asia, 6% from El Salvador, and 5% from Guatemala. The Urban Institute also estimates that approximately 70,000 Canadians live illegally in the US.
How many unauthorized immigrants enter the country each year?
As indicated above, unauthorized immigrants enter the US by crossing the border with detection (getaways) while others overstay their visas (overstays). Unfortunately, while the government may make estimates, the exact number is unknown. The government estimates the number of immigrants who getaways based on the number of border encounters. Normally this estimate is approximately 14% to 20%. Border encounters are recorded and published regularly. According to US Customs and Border Protection, and compiled in the following graph by Factcheck.org, with the exception of 2019, the number of apprehensions along the southwest border had declined steadily in recent years. However, from 2021 to 2023, the number of encounters increased significantly, from 1.96 million in 2021 to 2.77 million in 2022, to 3.2 million in 2023. If the estimate of 14% is correct for 2023 as an example, the total number of truly unauthorized immigrants that year would have been 448,000.
While there is no estimate of the number of annual “overstays” the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) believes that approximately 44% of total unauthorized immigrants are in this category.
What else do we know about the demographics of unauthorized immigrants?
Years of residence in the US: Over 60% of unauthorized immigrants have been in the US longer than 10 years, 91% are over the age of 25, and males outnumber females by 53% to 47%.
What can be said about the education levels of migrants arriving in the US?
According to the Pew Research Center, in 2022 35% immigrants over the age of 25 had a bachelor’s degree and compared to 36% of US born. However, the level of education is highly dependent on the region of origin of the immigrant. For example, 72% of immigrants from South Asia has bachelor’s degrees, while only 9% of immigrants from Mexico do. In addition, according to the American Immigration Council, 26% of all US doctors have medical degrees from foreign countries. 39% of computer programmers and nearly 30% of healthcare support professionals in the US were born in foreign countries.
How do immigrants fare economically once in the US?
CBS News provides a useful summary of various government data sources on immigrant participation in the labor force. Although immigrant participation rates are the same as native-born Americans, there is a gap in weekly earnings between the two groups. This gap declines with the more education a person receives and, in fact, foreign-born workers with bachelor’s, master’s, or postgraduate degrees outperform native-born Americans in weekly earnings by a small amount. Immigrants are also more likely to start and own a business. Lastly, immigrants tend to be highly represented in industries such as building and grounds maintenance, construction and extraction, computer and mathematical jobs, and food preparation and serving.
Do unauthorized immigrants pay taxes?
Yes, unauthorized immigrants pay payroll, property, sales, and personal income taxes.
Do immigrants engage in more criminal behavior than non-immigrants?
Although it appears that current data are limited, according to the American Immigration Council, “For more than a century, innumerable studies have confirmed two simple yet powerful truths about the relationship between immigration and crime: immigrants are less likely to commit serious crimes or be behind bars than the native-born, and high rates of immigration are associated with lower rates of violent crime and property crime. This holds true for both legal immigrants and the unauthorized, regardless of their country of origin or level of education.”
According to a study conducted by Kristin Butcher of Wellesley College and Anne Morrison Piehl of Rutgers, of men ages 18 to 40, “immigrants were less likely to be in correctional institutions than the native-born.” Examining data from the 1980, 1990, and 2000 decennial censuses, they found that such immigrants were incarcerated “on the order of one-fifth the rate of native born.”
How does one become a US Citizen?
To qualify for citizenship through naturalization, one must have held LPR status (green card) for at least five years. There are exceptions for members of the US military who serve in a time of war. One must be at least 18 years of age, demonstrate continuous residency, be of good moral character, and pass English, US history, and civics examinations.
How does one enter the US as a student?
The US offers three types of student visas: F, J, and M. The F visa is for study at a US college or university, or to study English at an English language institute. The J visa is for participation in an exchange program (high school or university), and the M visa is for non-academic or vocational study/training in the US.
What are H-1B Visas?
US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) defines H-1B visas as: “This nonimmigrant classification applies to people who wish to perform services in a specialty occupation, services of exceptional merit and ability relating to a Department of Defense cooperative research and development project, or services as a fashion model of distinguished merit or ability.”
Between 2017 and 2019, the U.S. received between 200,000 and 250,000 H-1B visa applications annually. The cap for new H-1B visas was 85,000, with an additional 20,000 for advanced-degree holders. In 2023, demand continued to grow, with total approvals (including extensions) often exceeding 200,000.
President Biden modified the H-1B visa program by restoring prior deference for renewals, broadening specialty occupation criteria, and increasing oversight through site visits. Finalized as formal regulations in January 2025, they are difficult to undo due to federal rulemaking requirements: they can’t simply be reversed by executive order - they can only be undone through the same regulatory process used to establish them in the first place.
Since returning to office, President Trump has increased scrutiny of H-1B applications leading to more delays and denials. He has also proposed revoking President Biden's extended auto-renewal of work authorizations.
Significant immigration reform and amnesty took place during the Reagan administration. What did it include?
President Reagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. The act increased enforcement of the immigration laws while at the same time allowing amnesty for several million unauthorized immigrants living in the US. Specifically, the law increased sanctions on employers who hired individuals without documentation, and substantially increased the level of border security. As part of the effort to recognize the status of those living in the US illegally, the law provided a process for applying for permanent residence. Three million people applied and nearly 2.7 million were granted residency.
Have there been other notable reforms since that time?
Yes, there have been several. The 1990 Immigration Act significantly raised legal admission levels, primarily in order to allow more employment-based immigration. In 1996, the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act established an “expedited removal” procedure for non-citizens who enter improperly or with fraudulent documents. That same year, the 1996 Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act added new grounds of inadmissibility and deportability. It created expedited removal procedures, expanded mandatory detention of immigrants (in the case that they have previously been convicted of certain criminal offenses), increased the number of border patrol agents, and introduced new border control measures. Following 9/11, President Bush passed the 2001 USA Patriot Act, which broadened the government’s ability to exclude migrants and increased monitoring of foreign students in the interest of preventing terrorism. In 2002, the Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act was passed to develop an electronic data system that could be used to share information about those denied entry across various arms of the government.
WHAT WAS THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION’S APPROACH TO IMMIGRATION?
During the Obama administration (2009–2017), over three million immigrants were deported, with a peak of 409,849 in 2012. In 2012, President Obama created the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program (DACA), offering deportation relief and work permits to undocumented immigrants brought to the U.S. as children, benefiting over 750,000 people by 2016. A 2014 plan to expand DACA and implement Deferred Action for Parents of Americans (DAPA) was blocked in court and never took effect. Enforcement focused increasingly on criminals, with 91% of interior removals in 2015 involving convicted individuals. In furtherance of the renewed focus on criminals in the immigration system, the Secure Communities program (a DHS initiative to identify illegal immigrants) was replaced by the Priority Enforcement Program in 2015. President Obama backed the 2013 Senate immigration reform bill, which failed in the House. Finally, the unauthorized immigrant population declined slightly from 11.3 million in 2009 to 11.0 million in 2016.
WHAT impact did president trump have on immigration IN HIS FIRST TERM?
President Trump’s “Border Security and Immigration Enforcement Improvements” executive order directed the Department of Homeland Security to take operational control of the US-Mexico border by constructing a wall, hiring an additional 5,000 border patrol agents, increasing the construction of detention facilities, increasing the detention of immigrants, and expanding the basis for expedited removal of undocumented individuals throughout the country.
President Trump’s executive order “Enhancing Public Safety in the Interior of the United States” attempted to prevent sanctuary cities (defined below) from receiving federal grants, permitted state and local law enforcement to act as immigration agents to apprehend and detain migrants, expanded the priority list of noncitizens subject to deportation, and authorized an increase of 10,000 additional Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) agents.
President Trump has targeted Sanctuary Cities in a variety of legal, financial, and rhetorical attacks. On September 28 of 2020, President Trump launched “Operation Rise”, in which ICE officers in almost all major American cities participated in raids resulting in hundreds of arrests.
President Trump’s executive order entitled “Protecting the Nation from Terrorist Attacks by Foreign Nationals” sought to suspend the issuance of visas to countries designated as detrimental to the interests of the US for 90 days. The list of countries included Iran, Iraq, Sudan, Syria, Libya, Somalia, and Yemen. It also suspended the US resettlement program and reduced the number of refugees to be admitted into the US to 50,000 (from 110,000 set by the Obama administration). Lastly, it suspended the resettlement of Syrian refugees indefinitely.
How did President Biden handle immigration?
President Biden expanded legal immigration pathways, including humanitarian parole programs for nationals of Venezuela, Cuba, Haiti, and Nicaragua, allowing over 30,000 monthly entries under monitored conditions. His administration deployed the CBP One app to streamline lawful border crossings and asylum scheduling, processing hundreds of thousands of appointments since its rollout. Protections such as DACA and Temporary Protected Status (TPS) were reinstated and extended for individuals from countries facing armed conflict or natural disasters.
The COVID-19 pandemic initially caused a sharp decline in undocumented immigration to the US due to global travel restrictions, economic shutdowns. The Biden Administration frequently utilized Title 42, a public health measure used to rapidly expel migrants without processing asylum claims.
By 2022, as Covid restrictions began to lift, undocumented immigration rebounded and accelerated, with monthly border encounters surpassing 200,000.
The US Citizenship Act of 2021, proposed by President Biden and Democrats, sought to provide an eight-year pathway to citizenship for about 11 million undocumented immigrants while also addressing border security and visa reforms. The bill failed to pass due to insufficient bipartisan backing and was never brought to a full vote in Congress.
In 2024, the Biden administration conducted over 270,000 removals of individuals lacking legal status, a marked increase from prior years. Many of these removals occurred under Title 8 following the expiration of Title 42. Title 8 is the primary U.S. immigration law that governs enforcement, deportations, and asylum procedures, allowing for formal removal and legal penalties for unauthorized entry. Despite expanded enforcement, President Biden also increased refugee admissions caps, setting the 2024 ceiling at 125,000.
How has the SECOND TERM of president trump – IN ITS Sixth MONTH AS OF THIS WRITING – AFFECTED IMMIGRATION?
President Trump’s second term has seen an escalation with historic deportation operations, detention of undocumented immigrants in sensitive sites, and creation of an Office of Remigration to coordinate repatriations. Refugee admissions remain suspended indefinitely, birthright citizenship has been targeted for termination by executive order, and asylum policies like “Remain in Mexico” were reinstated, resulted in over 100,000 asylum seekers being held outside the US pending court hearings.
ICE under President Trump reports a 45% increase in annual deportations compared to 2024 levels. Deportation operations have included workplace raids, courthouse arrests, and sweeps near schools and hospitals. Detention capacity has been expanded, with over 60,000 immigrants held in ICE custody as of mid-2025—the highest number in US history. Simultaneously, the number of new asylum applications processed monthly has dropped by more than 50%, as stricter screening and expedited removal protocols have been reinstated nationwide.
“BIRTHRIGHT CITIZENSHIP” is THE MOST legally Entrenched IMMIGRATION policy up for Reform. what does this entail?
The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees birthright citizenship to every child born “within the jurisdiction of the United States.” The 1898 Supreme Court case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark established an important precedent in its interpretation of the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment in that it cemented birthright citizenship for children of all immigrants.
According to Pew Research, in 2016, about 275,000 babies were born to unauthorized immigrant parents in the US — around 7% of all births that year.
President Trump has litigated for the end of Birthright Citizenship. As of June of 2025, the U.S. Supreme Court has not yet issued a ruling.
Children born in the US to undocumented immigrants can sponsor their parents for lawful permanent residence when they turn 21. Referred to as the “anchor baby” loophole, birthright citizenship used together with sponsorship potentially allows an illegal immigrant to achieve full citizenship while entirely skipping the legal immigration process. "Anchor babies” are cited in President Trump's attack on birthright citizenship. While it is a fact that this loophole exists, research by the Center for Migration Studies and analysis from the Migration Policy Institute finds little empirical support for the idea that undocumented immigrants come to the US with the primary intent of giving birth to obtain legal status.
The biden AND TRUMP ADMINISTRATIONS HAVE SPLIT SIGNIFICANTLY IN APPROACH TO ASYLUM SEEKERS. HOW SO?
The (United Nations) convention defines a refugee (or asylum seeker) as someone who "owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of [their] nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to that country"
President Trump has governed (in both terms) in accordance with the belief that the asylum system is being overrun by non-eligible economic migrants.
President Biden initially governed with a more flexible notion of who was eligible for asylum. He reversed several Trump-era asylum policies, including ending the "Remain in Mexico" program and restoring protections for victims of domestic and gang violence. He also expanded humanitarian parole programs for migrants from countries like Venezuela, Cuba, Haiti, and Nicaragua, allowing over 500,000 individuals to enter the U.S. legally. When Covid restrictions eased and the border received multiple years’ of delayed migrants simultaneously, President Biden reverted to a stricter paradigm, implementing rules requiring migrants to secure appointments through the CBP One app and limiting eligibility for those who did not seek asylum in transit countries.
Following his return to office in 2025, President Trump rescinded many of Biden's policies including the humanitarian parole programs, a move upheld by the Supreme Court. In 2025, he reinstated the "Remain in Mexico" policy and ended the CBP One app, cutting off key legal pathways for asylum seekers. He also revoked Biden-era humanitarian parole programs and expanded expedited removal processes through Executive Order 14159. Finally, President Trump imposed a daily arrest quota for ICE agents, intensifying immigration enforcement nationwide.
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